Marshall McLuhan, Video Games and the Secret Life of Walter Mitty

This paper offers a conceptualization on the nature of games as a customer offering through classical media considerations.  That is, in his seminal treatise on the media, Marshall McLuhan asserted that “The medium is the message.”  We have at hand new technology and a new medium – video games.  To get some feeling of how gamers extend themselves, we turn to two classics, James Thurber’s Secret Life of Walter Mitty and Neal Stephenson’s Snow Crash for some insight.  There is an indication that life may indeed be imitating art.  In other words, video games provide a significant advancement from a pre-existing situation in a manner analogous to the way Gutenberg’s printing press changed lives through books.  Literature has long presented possibilities in which one can be immersed.  Through video games, and virtual worlds, this potential has been taken to new heights.  According to McLuhan’s treatise they may be providing even greater advances in the way we adapt in the future. 

Playing the Game: Leveraging artistic freedom, technical demand and financial pressure in video game development

Co.authored with Ulf Sandqvist.
Originally prepared to be presented at NFF conference 20-24 Aug, 2011, but I was unable to presnt this.

The development of video games has grown from a playful activity at universities, and military research, in the early 1950s to a professional and profitable industry. Today, the video games industry is one of the major cultural industries with a turnover from sale in the video game industry exceeding that of box office revenues in the film industry. Despite this size is this industry, apart from a few publications (Cadin et al. 2006, Cadin and Guérin 2006, Kerr 2006, Readman and Grantham 2006, Tschang and Szczypula 2006, Walfisz 2006, Zackariasson et al. 2006a, Zackariasson et al 2006b), much ignored in academic research this far. This is about to change, not least in Sweden where theses about video games industry arouses a growing interest (Dymek 2010, Sandqvist 2007, 2010; Zackariasson 2003, 2007).
In this paper we aim to contribute to the discussion about leadership in the borderline between artistic freedom, technical limitations and financial pressure. Today, this is very much where the video game industry is situated. Leadership in cultural organizations, such as video games developer, has a significant role to capture the creativity and channel it towards innovations in production, video games, in this case. Guillet de Monthoux et al. (2007) argues that there is a certain fuzzyness in this type of organization, which places special demands on the leadership to encourage this flow and steer them towards a common goal. This argument is supported by Byrne et al. (2009) who suggests that leadership has an impact on an innovative process in which creative people can express their knowledge. Compared with the assumptions of the individual creative person and its driving force. The reason for the leadership and creativity in computer game development is a very good case to study is that this industry represents the output of today's cultural and technological society. Video game industry is also an industry which is heavily dependent on -the creativity and artistic creation (Tschang 2007, Zackariasson et al 2006), video games, like other cultural products, designed to stimulate our senses and arouse emotions. The process in which the game develops commute thus between artistic creativity and technical craft.
The reason for writing this text at this time is to put forth a number of thoughts for a research project on leadership in the Swedish video game industry that has just been initiated. For this project we are using both qualitative and quantitative data in order to create knowledge about leadership in this industry. The results of the project will be published in 2014.

It’s Anarchy! Translating Beliefs and Desires into Prescription for Participation

This paper explored the production on an MMORPG using an ANT vocabulary. The production of games can equally be understood as building networks and finding allies to make the game idea durable. When filling this game with content developers translate their beliefs about the world that surround them and desires in this into the virtual game world. This results in game worlds that are distilled copies of a physical world, as seen be a small number of video game develpers.

Marketing of Video Games in the Cultural Economy

Following in the wake of Internet technologies the video game industry is today transforming games to service outlets and promotional tools. Games are no longer products that are sold on a point of sale setup; instead developers offer the service to subscribe to games. In the midst of this transformation developers are also making use of the interactivity enabled by Internet technologies and crafts games as a sphere for promotion, a place for other organizations to display their products or services.

The Dematerialisation and Democratisation of Currencies: a historical description of currencies and how the physical has been replaced with the virtual

In this paper we examine the relation between the dematerialisation of currencies and democracy. We argue that money play an important role in any democratization process, as it enables and provide assets needed for individuals. Physical currency has a long history in supporting trade. It has also existed in many different shapes, depending on local demands and practices. In the shaping of virtual worlds cybercash has been made a part of this, although the trade practices depends on the type of virtual world: extension worlds or detension worlds. But, learning from the historical development, cybercash can be compared to other forms of currencies and therefore it is very likely that cybercash will be as important for any democratization process in virtual worlds as currencies has been in the physical world.

Internetworked after-sales service

Firms, even ones in relatively heavy industries, seem to be moving in a direction in which information technology (IT) is becoming more and more integrated into their organizations. This paper describes a good, perhaps model, firm that appears to be getting better by recognizing IT per se as an actor in its after-sales organization. Both a smarter product and IT produced evolutionary changes in its after-sales operations. As the product becomes self-diagnostic, it is increasingly evident that the technology is an actual participant in the organization. These developments are interpreted in terms of internetworking concepts. Perhaps one outcome of this study will be to encourage leaders/managers to utilize some of the precepts of actor network theory (ANT) in their thinking. D 2003 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

Real-time strategy: Evolutionary game development

Projects have become a way of getting things done, and have moved increasingly toward achieving qualitative goals. In this article on video game development, the opportunity is taken to relate some particular observations on creative projects and their management. The essential aspects of this approach are its incorporation of individual and group creativity into its foundation, a Lindblomian process of decision making, and a substitution of a time of regular introspection for milestones. Application depends upon the ability to have interim developments available for group examination and fixing a suitable time interval to make such assessments. The approach would seem applicable to a range of possibilities, including film making, script writing, architectural rendering, and equipment design.

Phronesis and creativity: Knowledge work in video game development

This article presents a study of the knowledge work involved in the development of video games. The success of these games is based on the ability to create a sense of immersion for the gamers. In the case presented here, dedicated gamers were also preferred when hiring personnel to develop the games. Speaking about the know-how of this specific group in terms of phronesis, the detailed and practical understanding of a particular field, enables an under- standing of the idiosyncratic competence of this group and its importance for the development process. The video game development process is also structured to enable an open-ended process under the continuous influence of the gamers. The article concludes that innovative and creative work needs to be able to exploit a variety of competencies and that the notion of phronesis has to date been relatively under-theorized and therefore deserves more detailed attention.

Management of Creativity in Video Game Development

Video games and their production have evolved over a few decades from being “fun” exercises at universities to a business in which annual revenues have exceeded that of Hollywood box office re- ceipts. Presently, development of these games has become technically more advanced, and the barrier to entry into this market as a developer is getting increasingly more costly. Consequently, there has been a move toward “professionalism” of these efforts that embodies flexibility into the creative development process. In this paper we report on the process used to develop new offerings in a successful Swedish firm. We reflect on the institutionalizing of creativity in this process and the leadership
style used in directing it.

Cyborg leadership: Including nonhuman actors in leadership

Can we learn anything about leadership by including technical artifacts in this understanding? There are two arguments why this might be the case. The first is that technical artifacts are many times implemented into organisations as a messiah, a general cure that has the ability to increase productivity and turnover. The second is that our understanding of leadership is still that of one person’s ability to bring any organisation to success, a perspective that is much too simplified. Thus, both technical artifact and leadership has impacts on organising, and are inscribed with importance.
In this pilot study the aim is to include technical artifacts, or nonhuman actors, in leadership. When doing this, leadership is defined as a process that involves both human and nonhuman actors, translating events to a goal. When doing this, constructing a cyborg leadership perspective mainly based on the work of Latour, but also other work from actor-network theory.
This is an ethnographic pilot study, based on participant observation in a Swedish company producing computer games. By applying a cyborg leadership perspective on the material constructed from these observations I first decontextualise the context, and later construct narratives from the actors, events, and translations lifted from the context.
The result from this pilot study is that leadership is indeed a process involving both human and nonhuman actors, a process that highlights the politics of ontology. In that respect this pilot study opens up a field for future studies where the need to include a deeper understanding of both actor-network theory and cyborg theory, as well as anchor cyborg leadership in present theorising about leadership.
Cyborg leadership has the ability to highlight the inseparability of the human and technical, no situation is only social, just as no situation is only technical. Cyborg leadership has also the capability of perceiving leadership as a process in its true sense, thus remove the leader from a position of ontological prerogative. How we perceive these managers, leaders, followers, and things will change. How they all interact with each other, and together, forms what will happen, here and now, and in the future.

World Builders: A Study on the Development of a Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game

This dissertation is a study of the development of a video game called Anarchy Online. This game was developed by the Funcom company between 1995 and 2001, and is a so-called Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG).
This genre of video games differs from traditional games in that it offers a persistent virtual world that gamers can access at all hours of the night or day. It is also a world where gamers make avatars that play with or against each other. All in all, it is as much a social sphere as a game. The popularity of MMORGPGs has continued to increase, and today there are several million gamers worldwide who participate in these virtual worlds.
Because virtual worlds are places where many people socialize, play, and spend a great deal of time, there is a need to form an understanding of them. In this thesis, I am studying how Anarchy Online was produced in order to understand the assumptions behind the rules governing the interaction in this specific virtual world were selected and organized. In doing so, I am using material from two sources: the developers and the game itself. This material was gathered through interviews, documents, and virtual ethnographic observations.
Ultimately, games consist of codes; but in order to program the code, they need to be specified by a game content. The analysis shows that the content of the game is defined by the developers’ view of a good society – the belief in a human being’s need for self-actualization and social interaction. The thesis thus concludes with the observation that the need to select
the discourses and/or philosophies for content and possible gamers’ actions requires the development of games and virtual worlds such as Anarchy Online to be more than the creation of an entertaining product. Rather, discourses were recreated from the physical world in which the developers live. In the end, gamers are locked into a discoursive prison created by the developers.

Internal project marketing: A case study

A growing trend has been documented in using projects and project management as a way of getting things done. Although the management approach may be nearly as old as civilization itself, project marketing considerations are relatively recent and consider primarily the external marketing of projects. The paper therefore reports on the nature of the internal marketing of projects adopted from a case study, which is in keeping with previous project marketing studies. Information was developed from an in depth interview of the project providing group’s manager – a situation that has been suggested to prove useful where complex decision-processes require a detailed step-by-step description. The interview itself was organized around lines of questions that came from two “vintage” business to business (B2B) marketing models – the buygrid model and a relationship-marketing model. In the terminology associated with the buygrid model, the general situation between parent and the developer firm can be characterized as a modified rebuy situation. Relationships are made complex buyer and seller are contained in the same firm. Further, individuals were less important than group involvements. Under these circumstances, individuals tend to have loyalties to both organizations and have interpersonal relationships built in “an American way of looking at things. It appears that internal producers do not get grants for development; they must earn them through a common proposal system. In fact, internal proposals in this case do not seem that much different from those offered from external producers. Any differences that exist appear to be in relationships that are developed.

Marketing considerations for massively multiplayer online games (MMOG)

A theme that runs across industry intelligence reports on video games is that the emergence of games that are true play spaces redefines how interactive entertainment is viewed. In particular, it is suggested that one way that the play space concept will expand the game industry is via the “micro-transaction” model. This idea is based on the concept of getting users to pay for individual game components. Indeed, such an approach may lead to increased sales by adding “bells and whistles” for present customers. We have been interested in this area for several years now and think somewhat differently. Although this industry is rather new and exciting, we have argued generally that benefits in understanding can be obtained by returning to basic, classical concepts. We have indicated that video games are services meeting the entertainment needs of their players. In particular, tourism is thought to be a useful metaphor in examining MMOG-based gaming and some of the implications of that approach are explored. The metaphor suggests that greater attention in segmentation should be paid to the motivation for gaming. More attention might be paid also to events and surroundings in “deepening” penetration among present segments. The attraction of additional segments, however, would appear associated with the activities aspect of the virtual tourism metaphor. Finally, it is asserted that we are poorly positioned to understand higher levels of purchasing and perhaps simply naming these transactions differently could lead to increased understanding.

Marketing of video games 'A'–A product manager's view

EPM in video game development: Life amongst Lindblomian Cyborgs

The development of a videogame is an artistic endeavor dependent on a number of disciplines, and understanding the creative nature of firms in this industry is tantamount to understanding the “skunk works” of the aerospace industry. Empirical information was collected as an ethnographic study of a game developer with approximately seven years experience in producing videogames. Our EPM observations at this particular firm, and gaming in general, fit into three categories – personnel, which forms the foundation of capabilities, management of the primary development project, and leadership. For its management and leadership, we needed to create, or adapt, some terms. Its management of its creative processes we called “Lindblomian” and the leadership, “Cyborg Leadership.”

Massively multiplayer online games: A 21st century service

CAD and consequences in the Swedish architectural industry

As an example of technology shaping the marketing envi- ronment, this paper reports on the impact of the introduction of computer assisted design (CAD) capabilities into the architectural industry in Swe- den. Change is addressed at three levels–in the process of producing out- put, in the output itself, and in the industry as an apparent consequence of the technological introduction. It is observed that there has been a division in the industry–one segment representing a rather traditional approach to architectural services, the other a more business-oriented, adopter segment. Results are interpreted in terms of a structurational theory of technology. Understanding is discussed both in terms of technology adoption as well
as the nature of professional services.

Paradigm shifts in the video game industry

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify, characterize, and discuss paradigm shifts that
have occurred in the video game industry with some emphasis on competition and competitiveness.
Design/methodology/approach – Basically, the paper depends upon a review of the literature
associated with video game development. Past history is taken from texts and academic papers
dealing with the subject. More current observations are taken from the business and popular press.
These observations are placed within a context associated with the classic papers on industry evolution, paradigms, paradigm shifts, competition, and competitiveness.
Findings – It is difficult to capture present shifts in such a fast-growing industry, but these shifts seem clear: the original entry of video games into the arcade sector that led to the industry and the demise of pinball; the development of the home cartridge and console that made the industry a home-based phenomenon; the entry of independent game-publishers that made the industry a two-tiered one; and the development of massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) that changed the way games are played.
Originality/value – The video game industry is an interesting one to follow. To an extent, its development characterizes our generation – fast paced, technologically oriented, and targeted toward the young and young at heart. This paper takes the subject away from a historical or anecdotal approach and places it within the context of industry evolution, paradigms, and paradigm shifts. It thus should be of value to students of not only video games, but also the evolution of rapidly growing industries and establishment of competitive advantages.

Competition and competitiveness in the video game industry

Game on: Competition and competitiveness in the video game industry

The video game industry has been an interesting one to follow. It has been driven by a combination of creativity and individual entrepreneurship and has been international almost from its inception. Releases of individual titles now rival Hollywood box office introductions in popularity and attendant revenue. The growth of the industry, however, has tended to be disruptive with regard to dominant firms. The purpose of this paper is to capture the present state of competition in the industry and discuss the shifts that appear to be occurring in this period of counter-variant growth. In particular, we wish to focus on the shifts in competitive paradigms that appear to be developing. The three that might be noted are Microsoft’s shift to a hardware producer in this industry, the adoption of an “athletic shoe” approach to game software, where more of it is being done in developing countries., and the Pacific Rim emphasis on PC’s and MMOGs as a direction in game development.

Organisering kring hot och risk

BASICS IN THE MARKETING OF VIDEO GAMES – THE NATURE OF THE OFFERING, INTERNAL MARKETING OF PROJECTS, AND A PRODUCT MANAGER’S VIEW OF THE OVERALL PROCESS

This paper treats the marketing of video games from initiation to post sale evaluations. It is somewhat conceptual in capturing the nature of video games, but very much field oriented in their development and distribution. Three levels of marketing are treated – the “usual” interaction between marketer and user, the nature of the offering itself, and the internal marketing that is required to get projects initiated. It is thought that this paper, although specialized in its application, is very much within the framework of understanding “normal business” in this sector, which is the theme of this conference.

Alternative Reality Games Explorations

We extend our interest in video games to make some exploratory observations on opportunities attendant Alternative Reality Games (ARGs). This sector is a genre of interactive narratives where the physical world is used as a platform, frequently involving other media, to encourage gamers to collectively solve puzzles. An analogy is made with the experience one reads about in the popular novel, The Da Vinci Code. The Beast, I Love Bees and The Art of the Heist are cited as examples of usage. Reflections are made along the lines of the one-time nature of ARGs, the segment they reach, the possible disassociation with purchases, expense and the potential failure of approaches. They are a cross between advertising and sales promotion because they bear a direct expense to the organization responsible for their commissioning. Their impact, however, has been along the lines of what one would expect from a publicity effort.

Playing With Video Games.

In this article we examine uses of video games that relate to creativity in use. Both those that limit themselves within the design of the game and those that transgress the intentions of the game are explored. We categorize the use of video games in two different dimensions: game play and design, which give us four different play categories to discuss – ecological, exploitive, extension, and extrovert. Each has its opportunities to exercise a certain degree of creativity, which of course adds to the enjoyment of gamers.

The Online Consumption of Identities: Heroes and Heroines in Gaming and Online Entertainment

Marketing in MMOGs: Market Segmentation, Virtual Identities and Product Positioning

It has been asserted that the emergence of virtual worlds has changed the ways that business may be conducted. In Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs) a participant is given the opportunity to not only create an identity of how he/she would like to appear but also select individual activities. Clearly, this opportunity may carry marketing implications because marketers are given the opportunity to consider potential customers as they might like to be. Background in self-identity and buying behavior, the nature of massively, multiplayer, online games (MMOGs), taxonomy of gamers, and the construction of identity is sketched. Five propositions are developed that summarize our observations from this foundation.

ENTREPRENEURSHIP INSIDE AND OUTSIDE OF VIDEO GAMES

The history of the video game industry is one in which development and growth has been driven by entrepreneurial activity, and this activity has been international in nature. Maturity has brought growth of some firms and so entrepreneurship has evolved into intrapreneurship in certain cases. Nevertheless, conventional entrepreneurship remains active in the industry. Hardware developers, in fact, commonly depend upon small, creative firms for a certain portion of their game portfolios. The paper looks at platforms, games themselves and facilitators. At present, the future in video games appears to be in Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs). Special note might be made of activity in Korea, which is disproportionate to country size and previous contributions. Attention is also paid to in- game activities and the association they may have with entrepreneurship. Gaming itself may encourage creativity and thus entrepreneurship. Player originated activities within these games, in particular, may be purveyors of future developments. The future “outside of games” is likely to bring greater intrapreneurship, further globalization, entry of more women into the field and furtherance of creative destruction. “Inside of games,” one can expect extension of applications, for instance into therapeutic uses.

Technology and change in the Swedish architectural industry

This paper reports on the impact of the introduction of computer assisted design (CAD) capabilities into the architectural industry in Sweden. Change is addressed at three levels - in the process of producing output, in the output itself, and in the industry as an apparent consequence of the technological introduction. It is observed that there has been a division in the industry – one segment representing a rather traditional approach to architectural services, the other a more business-oriented, adopter segment. Results are interpreted in terms of a structurational model of technology. Understanding is discussed both in terms of technology adoption as well as the nature of professional services

Virtual Identities and Market Segmentation in Marketing in and Through Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs)

It has been asserted that the emergence of virtual worlds has changed the ways that business may be conducted. In massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) a participant is given the opportunity to not only create an identity of how they would like to appear but also select individual activities. Clearly, this opport- unity may carry marketing implications because marketers are given the opportunity to consider potential customers as they might like to be. Background in self-identity and buying behavior, the nature of MMOGs, taxonomy of gamers, and the construction of identity is sketched. Five propositions are developed that summar- ize our observations from this foundation.

Heroines and" pink plots": The representation of gender in video games

TECHNOLOGY, AFTER-SALES SERVICES AND ORGANIZATIONS1, 2

Reflections on marketing in MMOGs

Relationships in Video Game Development

As a sector, the video game industry has thrived within an environment of innovation, end user sophistication and technology advancement. The market is attractive to developers due to the opportunities that exist in a growing market and the fact that publishers have provided opportunities for independent game developers within a relationship context. This paper describes the aspects of proposal development within the context of the relationships that develop between publishers and developers in this industry. The inter-firm relationships tend to be close; publishers depend upon developers to pitch ideas and also may shop brand ideas they themselves own to developers. Group relationships between firms are the norm, and personal relationships are close in “an American way.” Individual relationships tend to be closest with one’s own firm, but an appreciation exists of the symbiotic nature of the interaction between firms at the two levels in the industry.

The aesthetic threat

Peter Zackariasson (2009). The Aesthetic Threat. in Barbara Czarniawska ed., Organizing in the Face of Threat and Risk. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Det estetiska hotet

Publisher Value in the Video Game Industry

The purpose of this paper is to explore the activities of a video game publisher as a value creator in the video game industry. The topic is important because it provides an opportunity to understand a key actor in an industry that is relatively young, entrepreneurial, international, large, culturally important and fast moving. Stabell and Fjeldstad’s (1998) value network is used as the element of analysis and some preliminary data are analyzed with this background. Preliminary results suggest that publishers see themselves primarily as network infrastructure operators.